This ecosystem profile, together with profiles under development for other regions at this time, includes a new commitment and emphasis on using conservation outcomes-targets against which the success of investments can be measured-as the scientific underpinning for determining CEPF's geographic and thematic focus for investment. Conservation outcomes are the full set of quantitative and justifiable conservation targets in a hotspot that need to be achieved in order to prevent biodiversity loss. These targets are defined at three levels: species (extinctions avoided), sites (areas protected) and landscapes (corridors created). As conservation in the field succeeds in achieving these targets, these targets become demonstrable results or outcomes. While CEPF cannot achieve all of the outcomes identified for a region on its own, the partnership is trying to ensure that its conservation investments are working toward preventing biodiversity loss and that its success can be monitored and measured. CI's Center for Applied Biodiversity Science is facilitating the definition of conservation outcomes across the 25 global hotspots, representing the benchmarks against which the global conservation community can gauge the success of conservation measures.
In determining species outcomes, CEPF aims to improve or stabilize the conservation status of species and ultimately avoid extinctions. Since avoiding species extinctions is essential for halting biodiversity loss, threatened species, or species that have a high probability of extinction, are the obvious targets for conservation in a given hotspot. Species outcomes are defined based on the conservation status of individual species, compiled in IUCN Red Lists. The Red List is based on quantitative, globally applicable criteria under which the probability of extinction is estimated for each species. Species outcomes in the Caucasus hotspot are those species that are globally threatened (vulnerable, endangered and critically endangered) according to the most recent IUCN Red List. Outcome definition is a fluid process and as data and criteria become available, species-level outcomes are being expanded to include other taxonomic groups that have not been assessed, as well as restricted-range species (endemics).
In order to determine species outcomes for the Caucasus, WWF Caucasus synthesized available information on globally threatened birds for the hotspot, based on data provided by BirdLife International. Next we included all other globally threatened species in the hotspot, based on recent IUCN Red Lists. Local scientists assisted in determining whether or not each species actually occurs in the Caucasus. WWF Caucasus then compiled a database on threatened species including the status, distribution, conservation needs and major threats for each species based on surveys of scientists in the field.
A total of 51 species representing six taxa (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish and plants) were included in the species outcomes as a result of this process (Table 1, Appendix 1*). Eighteen mammal species, 11 bird species, 10 reptile species, four amphibian species, seven fish species and one plant species were selected as targets for conservation. Two species of mammals are listed as critically endangered: the saiga antelope, found only in the Russian part of the Caucasus, and the Armenian birch mouse, found only in Armenia. Four mammals are endangered, including the West Caucasian tur and Dahl's jird. Eleven of the 18 mammal species are found in Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, while 14 species are found in Russia, 10 in Iran and nine in Turkey. The vulnerable giant mole rat is found only in Russia. Six of the threatened mammals are endemics or restricted-range species.
Eleven bird species were identified as conservation outcomes, including one critically endangered species—the Siberian crane—which migrates along the Caspian coast. The white-headed duck is endangered, while the remaining nine species are considered vulnerable. Three of the avian species outcomes are found in Georgia and four in Armenia. Eight birds are found in Azerbaijan and 10 in the Turkish Caucasus. The Russian and Iranian Caucasus both have all 11 bird species. Three additional bird species, used by BirdLife International to delineate Important Bird Areas (IBAs), are local endemics with restricted ranges: Caucasian black grouse, Caucasian snowcock and Caucasian chiffchaff.
Ten species of reptiles and four species of amphibians were targeted in the species outcomes. Two reptiles-Darevsky's and pontic vipers-are critically endangered. The large-headed water snake is found only in the Russian Caucasus. All four species of amphibians are vulnerable. The Persian brook salamander is found only in the Iranian Caucasus. Seven of the 10 threatened reptiles and all of the threatened amphibians in the hotspot are restricted-range species or local endemics.
Seven species of fish are included in the species outcomes, six of which are from the sturgeon genus. Five of the seven fish are endangered. The critically endangered Baltic sturgeon is found only in the Black Sea and rivers of the Kolkheti Lowlands in Georgia. Overfishing and pollution in the Caspian and Black seas threaten all of these fish species.
Only one plant—Tigran's elder—is included in the species outcomes as a vulnerable species. This endemic species is sporadically found on lower and middle mountain slopes in Armenia and is threatened by habitat loss to development and overgrazing.
In sum, six species of the 51 are critically endangered, 14 are endangered and 31 are vulnerable. The 51 threatened species were the basis for determining site-level outcomes for the Caucasus hotspot and will be important indicators of the success of future conservation activities. Among them, critically endangered, restricted-range and landscape species with large ranges that cannot be saved at the site-level were taken into account as important conservation priorities at the species level (Appendix 2). CEPF and the conservation community should monitor the status of these species closely to prevent further extinctions and biodiversity loss.
*
September 2004 update: The global conservation status of one of the amphibian species outcomes has since been determined to be near threatened, rather than vulnerable as originally indicated. As a result of this new information, the species can no longer be considered a species outcome or a priority for CEPF investment. The CEPF investment strategy below and the appendices of this profile available in the PDF download have been updated with this change.
Site outcomes were defined for each target species, recognizing that most species are best conserved through the protection of the sites in which they occur. Site outcomes are physically and/or socioeconomically discrete areas of land that need to be protected to conserve the target species. Sites are scale-independent, which means they can be very small or very large. The defining characteristic of a site is that it is an area that can be managed as a single unit. Sites can be any category of protected area, governmental lands, or private farms or ranches. The main objective of defining important sites for conservation of threatened species is to identify areas where investments can be made to create protected areas or special conservation regimes, expand existing protected areas and improve protected area management, all of which will help to prevent species extinctions and biodiversity loss.
In order to define the site-level outcomes, WWF Caucasus analyzed point data on the distribution of globally threatened and endemic species (species outcomes). It mapped the data according to the six taxa (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish and plants) to determine sites where these species are found. Since BirdLife International has already determined IBAs for bird fauna, these were automatically included as site outcomes in the hotspot. Existing protected areas in the region where globally threatened species (species outcomes) occur were also included in the list of sites. Much of the work involved resolving overlaps between the IBAs, existing protected areas and other site outcomes for non-bird taxa, since IBAs were not always delineated with regard to protected area boundaries. Important habitats for threatened species that are not currently protected but could be managed as a single unit were also included. Additional factors considered in determining site outcomes were: a) important habitats for endemics (restricted-range species) and b) sites important for large congregations of waterfowl and fish, particularly those that hold more than 1 percent of the global population of a single species at a particular time (according to BirdLife International criteria).
WWF Caucasus identified 205 site outcomes for the Caucasus, covering 19 percent of the hotspot. It compiled a database on these site outcomes including the site name, major habitat, threatened species occurring there, protected status, threats and proposed conservation actions. Table 2 shows how the outcomes are distributed across countries and taxonomic groups. In Armenia, 20 sites were identified, covering an area of more than 0.91 million hectares. Azerbaijan has 61 site outcomes covering more than 1.29 million hectares. Georgia has 49 site outcomes across an area of 2.17 million hectares. In northwestern Iran, 15 site outcomes have been identified across 1.65 million hectares. The Russian Caucasus includes 42 site outcomes with a combined area of 2.29 million hectares. Northeastern Turkey has 18 site outcomes with an area of 2.25 million hectares. These sites are described in Appendix 3 and depicted in Figure 2.
In all, 115 of the sites identified in the site outcomes harbor mammals listed as threatened by IUCN. Globally threatened birds and IBAs are represented in 100 of the sites, while reptiles and amphibians are found in 59 and 21 of the sites, respectively. Threatened fish species are found in 20 of the 205 sites and the Tigran's elder—the only globally threatened plant species—is found in three sites.
Corridor outcomes are large-scale landscapes that need to be conserved in order to allow persistence of biodiversity. While protecting sites alone will not be sufficient to conserve biodiversity in the long-term, conservation of landscapes (corridors) large enough to allow the persistence of biodiversity must be anchored on core areas (site outcomes), embedded in a matrix of other natural habitat and anthropogenic land uses. Corridors within the Caucasus were identified and delineated based on the following criteria: coverage of site outcomes, existence of large-scale intact biota assemblages, needs of wide-ranging (landscape) species, connectivity of habitats and opportunities for maintaining ecological and evolutionary processes. Areas that were considered for corridors included intact rivers and landscapes, natural mountain passes, known migratory corridors and areas with spatial heterogeneity that could serve as stepping stones for many species. WWF Caucasus also considered habitat representation, resilience to anthropogenic development scenarios and the need to safeguard unknown areas that might harbor high levels of biodiversity or endemism.
Ten conservation corridors were identified for the Caucasus hotspot as important for biodiversity conservation (Appendix 4 and Figure 3). Of these, five were determined to be priority (target) corridors for conservation. Below we describe all 10 corridors in brief, including significant biodiversity features, threatened species and habitats, institutional factors and potential for expansion of protected areas. An explanation of the ranking of the five priority corridors is given below under CEPF Niche for Investment.
The Kuma-Manych Corridor (2.08 million hectares) extends along the northern border of the hotspot in the North Caucasus Plain and includes the eastern coast of the Azov Sea. The corridor, located entirely within the Russian Federation, harbors numerous wetlands, large lakes and channels - important areas for waterfowl that have been designated IBAs and site outcomes. Wetlands are surrounded by steppe and semi-desert habitats. Parts of the corridor have been severely impacted by grazing, farming, poaching and overfishing. The Kuma-Manych Corridor was delineated based on its importance for migratory waterfowl and its significant number of IBAs. The corridor contains 11 site outcomes, making up a quarter of its area. Lake Manych-Gudilo, the Yeyski Salt Lakes and the deltas of the Don and Kuban rivers are some of the more notable sites. The Kuban River Delta has been designated a Ramsar site. Ten globally threatened species are found here, such as European mink, otter, bustard and three species of sturgeon. Eight wetland sites hold globally significant congregations of waterfowl, such as the red-breasted goose and lesser white-fronted goose. Three wildlife sanctuaries protect only 4.1 percent of the corridor. There are no local NGOs active in the region, but universities and institutes in large cities of the North Caucasus work in these areas. International conservation organizations and Russian national NGOs are active in the region. State natural resource management agencies have representative offices for the region.
The Greater Caucasus Corridor (4.68 million hectares) mainly includes middle and high mountain areas of the Greater Caucasus Range, extending from the Black Sea almost to the Caspian. The corridor runs along the borders of Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan and contains the highest peak in Europe - Mount Elbrus (5,642m). Major habitats include deciduous and coniferous forests at middle elevations and elfin woods, shrublands, alpine meadows, glaciers and snowfields at high elevations. Large areas of pristine forests and high mountain habitats remain intact. A number of endemic species of plants and animals are found here. The region was named a large herbivore hotspot by WWF for the abundance of ungulates. Threats to biodiversity include illegal logging, overgrazing in high mountain areas, poaching and political strife. The corridor contains 40 site outcomes, making up almost half of its area. Twenty globally threatened and seven restricted-range species are found here including East and West Caucasian turs and Dinnik's viper. One site, Teberdinsky Nature Reserve, harbors globally significant congregations of the endemic Caucasian black grouse. Protected areas cover 35 percent of the corridor, including 15 strictly protected nature reserves, three national parks and 23 sanctuaries and other areas. Several reserves are adjacent to each other across national borders, offering great potential for transboundary cooperation. Some reserves should be connected by wildlife corridors to facilitate migration of red deer and other species. Political conflicts in Abkhazia (Georgia) and Chechnya (Russia) make work in certain areas of the corridor difficult. A number of NGOs are active in the corridor. Existing protected areas are the basis of many investment projects in the region. State natural resource management agencies have representative offices in the corridor.
The Caspian Corridor (3.23 million hectares) is located along the Caspian Sea coast from the Talysh Mountains in the south to the northern border of the hotspot, including parts of Azerbaijan and Russia. Coastal wetland, marine, semi-desert and desert habitats are found in this corridor, which has the lowest level of precipitation in all of the Caucasus. The Caspian Corridor was delineated based on its importance for migratory waterfowl and its significant number of IBAs. The corridor has 31 sites identified as site outcomes, covering more than a quarter of its area. Twenty sites have important congregations of waterfowl, the largest number in the Caucasus. Many sites are critical spawning areas for threatened sturgeon populations. Twenty-three globally threatened species are found here, such as the Caspian seal, found in the Absheron site and the marbled duck, found in lakes and shore areas along the Caspian. Illegal fishing threatens sturgeon populations. Poaching of migratory birds is widespread. Pipeline construction and oil development threaten certain parts of the region, such as Baku Bay. The protected areas system, made up of four nature reserves and 11 sanctuaries, covers 14 percent of the corridor. Some NGOs are active in the corridor, but capacity is generally limited. New funds for the environment are becoming available from oil companies in the region. State natural resource management agencies have representative offices in the corridor.
The West Lesser Caucasus Corridor (2.99 million hectares) is situated in the western part of the Lesser Caucasus Mountain Range, where it extends along the Black Sea from northeastern Turkey to southwestern Georgia, ending in central Georgia. The area has the highest level of precipitation in the Caucasus. The Colchic Refugia, at the core of the corridor, contains the highest levels of woody plant diversity in the hotspot with a large percentage of endemic and relic species. Major habitats consist of broadleaf, coniferous and elfin forests with evergreen understory. Five species of rhododendron are found here, including two endemics. The Kolkheti Lowlands harbor important wetlands for migrating waterfowl and rivers for spawning sturgeon, including the critically endangered Baltic sturgeon. Significant numbers of threatened bat species are found here. The region was named a large herbivore hotspot by WWF for its abundance of ungulate species. In all, 21 site outcomes are found in this corridor, covering 76 percent of its area. Four sites contain globally significant congregations of birds. The corridor includes the highest number of threatened species among the corridors (29) including several species of endemic vipers, sturgeon and the otter. Seven restricted-range species inhabit the area, such as the Caucasian salamander. Illegal fishing threatens sturgeon populations in the Black Sea, while fuel wood collection, illegal logging and timber export affect forest ecosystems. Poaching, oil pipelines, sea ports and damming of rivers impact freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. Protected areas cover 11 percent of the corridor and include 12 nature reserves, seven national parks and five sanctuaries. Transboundary cooperation between reserves bordering Turkey and Georgia has been initiated. WWF and several local NGOs are active in the region, as well as the Georgian and Turkish governments. State natural resource management agencies have representative offices in the corridor.
The Javakheti Corridor (0.42 million hectares), the smallest corridor in the Caucasus, is situated in the northern part of the Southern Uplands on the border of Armenia, Georgia and Turkey. Habitats include high mountain wetlands with lakes of volcanic origin, steppes and meadows. The region is one of the three important migratory corridors for birds in the Caucasus. Thirteen site outcomes are found here, covering 53 percent of the corridor. Six globally threatened species inhabit the region, such as the corncrake and imperial eagle. Darevsky's viper is one of the two restricted-range species in this corridor. Ten sites in the corridor have significant congregations of waterfowl, the second largest in the hotspot after the Caspian Corridor. Threats to habitats include unsustainable water management, poaching of birds and overgrazing. There are no protected areas in the corridor, providing opportunities to create new reserves, including across political boundaries. A number of NGOs are active in this corridor. State natural resource management agencies have representative offices in the region.
The East Lesser Caucasus Corridor (1.43 million hectares) in Armenia and the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan is situated mainly in the eastern and southern parts of the Lesser Caucasus Mountain Chain. Temperate broadleaf forests, mountain steppes and subalpine and alpine meadows are the primary habitat types. Juniper woodlands are found on mountain slopes. Lake Sevan, the largest freshwater lake in the Caucasus, is included in this corridor. The leopard - a flagship species - is found in the region. The corridor includes 13 site outcomes, making up nearly half of its area (52 percent). Fourteen globally threatened species are found here, such as Armenian mouflon, bezoar goat, otter, Armenian birch mouse and Tigran's elder. Lake Sevan has large congregations of waterfowl. The Armenian birch mouse and the Armenian mouflon are restricted-range species in this corridor. Fuel wood collection and illegal logging, poaching, overgrazing and unsustainable water management threaten the region's biodiversity and natural ecosystems. Protected areas cover a quarter of the corridor, but only two of these are national parks, three are strict nature reserves and the remaining sixteen are sanctuaries with insufficient protected regimes to prevent biodiversity loss. The status of these protected areas should be increased and new reserves should be created. Institutional capacity is limited, with the exception of governmental agencies, which have representatives of environmental and other natural resource management agencies in the region. International NGOs carry out conservation work in the corridor.
The Iori-Mingechaur Corridor (0.97 million hectares) is situated in the central part of the Transcaucasian Depression on the border between Georgia and Azerbaijan. The corridor includes intact arid plateau and foothill habitats with pistachio-juniper woodlands, as well as a significant portion of the floodplain forests in the hotspot. Steppe, semi-desert and wetland ecosystems are also represented here. The corridor includes 14 site outcomes, covering 57 percent of its area. Three sites are important for bird congregations. Nine globally threatened species inhabit the region including Mehely's horseshoe bat, common tortoise, imperial eagle and otter. Significant threats include overgrazing, poaching and infrastructure development. Protected areas cover 15.1 percent of the corridor. Habitats are adequately protected on the Georgian side and protection is relatively good in Azerbaijan. The corridor has high potential for transboundary cooperation among reserves. Several NGOs from Georgia and Azerbaijan are active in this region. State natural resource management agencies have representative offices in the corridor.
The Southern Uplands Corridor (2.04 million hectares) covers the central part of the Southern Uplands on the border of Turkey, Iran and Armenia. The sacred Mount Ararat (5,165 m), located in this corridor, is one of the highest peaks in the Caucasus Hotspot. Major habitats include mountain steppes and scattered wetlands. The corridor contains 16 site outcomes, covering 62 percent of its area. Two sites have globally significant congregations of birds. Twenty-four globally threatened species, such as Armenian mouflon and bezoar goat, are found in the corridor. Seven species have restricted ranges, such as Dahl's jird and Schaub's bat, which occur only in this corridor. Overgrazing and poaching threaten the region's habitats and wildlife. Protected areas are poorly represented, covering less than one percent of the corridor. New protected areas, particularly in wetland areas, should be created. Institutional capacity is limited, with the exception of governmental agencies, which have regional divisions of national environmental and natural resource agencies.
The Arasbaran Corridor (1.24 million hectares) includes the extreme northwestern part of Iran at the junction of the Southern Uplands and the Lesser Caucasus Range. The Araks River borders the corridor to the north. Major habitat types include mountain steppes, remnants of broadleaf forests and wetlands in the Araks River watershed. Mountain habitats are important for the leopard. The corridor includes five site outcomes, which cover more than half of its area. Three sites along the Araks River are important for congregations of waterfowl. Globally threatened species include 16 species, such as the Armenian mouflon and bezoar goat. The Persian brook salamander is one of the three restricted-range species. Threats to natural habitats include overgrazing and poaching, as well as construction of roads and dams. Protected areas cover nearly a quarter of the corridor, but the protected status of these is generally too low to guarantee biodiversity conservation. Institutional capacity is limited, though regional representatives of environmental agencies and protected areas staff are present.
The Hyrcan Corridor (1.85 million hectares) includes the Talysh Mountains in Azerbaijan and the northwestern part of the Alborz Mountains in Iran, along with a section of the Caspian coast. The Hyrcanic Region is one of the two important plant refugia in the Caucasus Hotspot, where a number of relic and endemic species are found. Major habitats include broadleaf forests, high mountain steppes and meadows and some coastal wetlands - important wintering grounds for endangered bird species. One wetland area has Ramsar status. Leopards are found in forest habitats. The corridor contains eight site outcomes, covering over 21 percent of its area. Two sites are important for bird congregations. Nineteen globally threatened species are found in the corridor including sturgeon and Siberian crane. Overarching threats include unsustainable logging, poaching and overfishing of sturgeon species. Protected areas (one strict nature reserve, one national park and 11 other types of protected areas) cover an insufficient portion of the corridor (8.6 percent) and most of these have low protected status. Institutional capacity is limited, though regional representatives of environmental agencies and protected areas staff are present.
Thirty-three sites with a combined area of 675,341 hectares were not included in any of the corridors. These sites should be targeted for investment by other funding sources since they do not fall under the corridor outcomes that will be supported by CEPF investment. The majority of these sites are IBAs that are distributed along bird migratory routes. White-headed duck, otter and several species of bats are just a few of the globally threatened species that need protection in these individual sites. Two sites in Armenia are crucial for protection of the Tigran's elder plant. Additionally, there were several site outcomes that were only partially covered by corridors. Threats to these sites include infrastructure development (urban expansion), overgrazing, overfishing, poaching and water pollution. These sites should be targeted for investment by other funding sources since they do not fall under the corridor outcomes that will be supported by CEPF investment.
In summary, the area of the 10 corridor outcomes is 20.8 million hectares, making up 35.5 percent of the hotspot. Corridor outcomes contain the majority of the globally threatened species and are important areas of congregations of waterfowl and Caucasian endemics. Corridors are generally the most intact areas in the Caucasus, partly because they are located along political borders, furthest from administrative centers and development pressures. The majority of the protected areas in the hotspot fall within the boundaries of the 10 corridors. Corridors include 84 percent of the total number of sites identified in site outcomes, or 94 percent of the total area of site outcomes (Figure 4). The remaining sites, shown in Figure 4 and listed in Appendix 3, must be targeted for individual conservation programs from other funding sources to prevent extinctions of globally threatened species.
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