Humans have inhabited the Caucasus for many millennia. Legions of rulers and government regimes have vied for control of the region and its rich natural and cultural resources. Nearly half the lands in the Caucasus have been transformed by human activities. Any strategy for conservation of the rich biodiversity of the region will have to take the human factor into account by seeking alternative ways to boost local economies through integrating sustainable practices of natural resource use and including local communities in conservation programs.
After the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1990, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and even Russia faced the challenge of building new governmental structures. New state institutions dealing with natural resources were created while others were dismantled or reorganized. Environmental ministries are the leading agencies in biodiversity conservation in Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, while the Ministry of Natural Resources absorbed the functions of the environmental ministry in Russia in 2000. Forestry, water resources, agricultural and other agencies also have jurisdiction over various aspects of natural resources. Ministries generally have regional divisions in each of the provinces within the countries. However, state conservation agencies often lack funding and capacity to implement their mandates or to enforce legislation and international obligations. Conflicting policies in legislation and overlapping jurisdictions in addition to a general lack of communication among governing bodies hinder effective management of environmental resources and create significant contradictions in regulation.
In Turkey, the Ministry of Forestry deals with biodiversity conservation issues in forests. Turkey's Ministry of Environment also plays an important role, dealing with pollution, marine and wetland ecosystems, climate change, sustainable resource use and other issues. Iran's Department of the Environment is in charge of environmental protection in that country.
Universities, scientific academies and specialized institutes on forestry, soils, biology and marine resources play an important role in research and inventory of biodiversity in the hotspot. Scientists and students participate in reserve planning and fieldwork in protected areas.
The NGO movement has gained momentum over the past decade in each of the Caucasus countries. National and local NGOs speak out on environmental issues, impact public opinion and conduct scientific studies on environmental and social issues. NGOs provide independent information on important topics, often filling in gaps where scientific and governmental institutions fall short. NGOs play a crucial role in bringing a variety of stakeholders together, holding meetings among decisionmakers, local communities, businesses and international organizations. Fourteen national NGOs, such as the Environment Foundation of Turkey and the SOS Environment Volunteers and eight local NGOs, such as the Black Sea Environmentalists, are active in the Turkish Caucasus. The Center for Sustainable Development (CENESTA) is one of many environmental NGOs active in Iran. Some of the more notable of the over 20 NGOs in Armenia are the Biodiversity and Landscape Conservation Union, Khazer Ecological and Cultural NGO and the Center for Environmental Rights. Azerbaijan has the Ecological Union, Green Wave and the Green Movement of Azerbaijan among 40 others. At least 50 environmental NGOs are active in Georgia, such as the Noah's Ark Center for Recovery of Endangered Species (NACRES), Georgian Center for Conservation of Wildlife (GCCW) and the Green Movement of Georgia. NGOs promoting conservation in the Russian Caucasus include the Socio-Ecological Union and other regional divisions of Russian NGOs and the North Caucasus Association of Protected Areas.
International NGOs such as Birdlife International, Eurasia Foundation, Fauna and Flora International, Greenpeace, MacArthur Foundation, Wetlands International and WWF are important catalysts for biodiversity conservation in the Caucasus.
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Russia began to adopt new environmental legislation after the demise of the Soviet Union in 1990. Legislation was enacted on environmental protection, protected areas, wildlife management and forestry. Other laws on air pollution, water, land use and environmental impact assessments were also enacted.
In Turkey, articles in the 1982 Constitution guarantee the right to a clean environment and lay out principles for protection of cultural and natural areas. A number of other laws on allocation of forests for protection, hunting and fishing, water use, tourism, coastal areas, export of animal species and national parks have come into force in the past two decades.
Iran's constitution proclaims the need to prevent pollution and environmental degradation. Laws governing management of game, forest and rangeland resources have been in effect since 1967. Laws and acts dealing with environmental protection, air pollution and water use were put in place beginning in the 1970s and 1980s. Deficiencies in existing regulations are related to the lack of correct environmental data, lack of enforcement by environmental inspection agencies and the scarcity of experienced environmental professionals in the country.
Gaps and contradictions in conservation legislation and overlapping jurisdictions plague each of the countries in the Caucasus. Transboundary cooperation on environmental issues is limited, though a memorandum of understanding is under consideration between Georgia and Turkey to promote cooperation on biodiversity conservation and sustainable resource use in the globally important Colchic Region. Bilateral agreements on environmental cooperation also exist between Georgia and Azerbaijan and between Georgia and Armenia, yet detailed work plans have yet to be elaborated.
All six countries have signed the majority of international conventions, including the Convention on Biological Diversity, Wetlands of International Importance, International trade of plant and animal species (CITES) and World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Not all of the countries, however, have the capacity and finances to fulfill their international obligations. Countries are implementing other multilateral strategies and programs such as the Caspian Environment Program and Regional Seas Project.
The economies of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Russia are still in a state of transition since the fall of the Soviet Union. Economic development and indicators clearly differ between urban areas and rural communities, where corridor outcomes have been delineated. Agricultural farming, livestock, forestry and fishing make up the bulk of the economy in rural regions in the Caucasus.
Agriculture was the leading sector of the economy for Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and the Russian Caucasus during Soviet times. Fertile soils and favorable climate conditions allowed a broad range of production. Goods shipped to the USSR included grapes, wine, tobacco, cotton, fruit, vegetables, tea and citrus fruits. Since 1990, production and distribution patterns were disrupted. In Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, total production of previously exported crops such as citrus fruits and grapes is only a third of pre-1990 levels. Today most of the rural population depends on subsistence farming, growing basic food crops for consumption. Livestock farming (cattle, sheep, goats) is the primary source of income in mountain regions. Cattle and sheep provide leather, wool, meat, milk and other products. Livestock production has decreased in the former Soviet republics in the past ten years.
Fishing in rivers, lakes and seas has been an important part of regional economic development for centuries. The demand for caviar, sturgeon and other fish on global markets encourages overfishing and poaching. Sturgeon is the most sought after fish, with seven species living in the Caspian and Black seas and swimming up rivers to spawn. The Caspian Sea holds 90 percent of the world's sturgeon. Overfishing in the Black and Caspian seas has brought about the demise of sturgeon and other fish - 13 species of fish in the Black Sea are endangered or nearly extinct. Fishing in freshwater rivers and lakes plays an important role in local economies and for supplementing low incomes in rural areas. Poaching in important rivers and streams for spawning sturgeon is widespread.
Agriculture is also the leading industry in the Turkish Caucasus. Major crops include grains, vegetables, industrial crops, fruit and seeds for oil. All of the tea produced in Turkey comes from the Caucasus provinces. Livestock and bee-keeping are also important sources of income in rural areas. The bulk of fish production in the country comes from the Turkish Caucasus. Yet the economic situation in the Turkish Caucasus lags behind economic indicators for Turkey.
The Iranian Caucasus has grasslands favorable for livestock breeding and agriculture. Craft-making and fruit orchards are also important sources of income in rural areas. Dairy products from this region such as Leghvan cheese are world-renowned.
The forestry and wood manufacturing industry in the Caucasus has felt the impacts of the economic crisis more acutely than other areas of production, despite relatively large forest reserves, particularly in the North Caucasus. Wood processing plants produce boards for construction, furniture, parquet flooring and other products. Forests provide firewood for heat and cooking in rural areas. Due to the chronic lack of energy resources in Georgia and Armenia, the public sector now consumes two to three times more firewood than in the 1980s. Illegal logging and timber export put at risk some of the last remnants of forests in the Caucasus.
A once flourishing tourism industry based on spas and mineral baths, beaches of the Black and Caspian seas and mountain sports has diminished to next to nothing. Today, many tourists prefer to travel to more exotic destinations with higher standards, resulting in serious losses to local economies. Facilities to support tourists in the former Soviet region of the Caucasus are decaying or lacking altogether, suggesting that either large investments would be required to boost this sector of the economy or local people would need to become more active in providing diversifying services to tourists (bed and breakfasts, restaurants, souvenirs) to reach a different market segment.
Infrastructure is mainly concentrated in and around large cities, far from rural areas. Several dams for hydroelectric stations and reservoirs have altered natural river systems and flooded forests and steppes. Oil pipelines connect the Caspian and Black seas and gas pipelines run from Russia to Armenia via Georgia. The Baku-Ceyhan pipeline, now under construction, will connect the Caspian Sea with the Mediterranean, running through Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey. Pipelines and power lines fragment natural habitats and disrupt animal migrations.
Roads are generally under-developed and poorly maintained due to the complicated mountainous terrain in the region and lack of finances. Railroads follow the major roads and are connected by ferries to Ukraine and Europe, offering potential for connection to the European railway network. Water transportation is accessible from ports on the Black Sea, handling some freight and insignificant numbers of passengers. The Caspian Sea is landlocked and connections between ports of adjacent countries are limited.
Most of the Caucasus Region is electrified. The Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant, the only atomic power station in the Caucasus, produces the bulk of the energy in Armenia. In Azerbaijan, thermal power plants produce 85 percent of the energy and hydropower provides the rest. Most of the energy in Georgia is generated by hydropower.
Since infrastructure and regional development is mostly concentrated near urban centers, many of the outlying regions of the countries are largely unscathed by large-scale infrastructure projects and development. Border regions of the countries, which are usually the most distant areas from administrative centers, harbor large swaths of intact natural habitats. As a result, much of the biodiversity in the Caucasus has been preserved in these outlying regions and many of the corridor outcomes are situated in border regions.
Approximately 35 million people live in the Caucasus Hotspot and about half in rural areas. The region has a high population density at 60 people per square kilometer. High migration rates are characteristic for the entire region. Incentives for migration include better employment opportunities, higher income and the attraction of urban life for rural youth. As a result of migration and falling birth rates, the overall population in the region has decreased since 1990.
The majority of the population in rural areas of the former Soviet Union lives below the poverty level. Most have low disposable incomes, limited access to health care, poor housing and shortages of fuel and electricity. Health care is more accessible in the Turkish Caucasus and some other areas. Many people in rural villages supplement their income with food from vegetable gardens, livestock, fishing and hunting.
The Caucasus is a mosaic of ethnic, religious and cultural diversity. A multitude of languages can be heard in the region. Christianity and Islam are practiced side by side and while differences in religious beliefs are generally tolerated, historically religion has been the reason behind many ethnic skirmishes.
Many people are aware of environmental issues due to the generally high level of education in the region (literacy is near 100 percent in most areas). Rural populations, however, are generally less informed and competent environmental journalists in these areas are lacking. The desire to take action to improve the environmental situation among the general public is very low, since most people are more concerned with meeting basic needs such as food, drinking water, or employment.
In conclusion, a rapid assessment of the socioeconomic situation assists in identifying the niche for CEPF in the region. Clearly, civil society—NGOs, scientific institutes, universities and other groups—is established in the region, providing a basis for conservation action, though finances and capacity are limited. Governmental institutions are generally supportive of conservation and a number of laws are in place, but agencies often lack financial and technical capabilities to enforce them. Cooperation on the environment between countries is limited but the potential exists, particularly where protected areas and migrating species are concerned. Most of the counties in the region are experiencing economic difficulties. The rural population is especially poor, where people are largely dependent on the land to meet their basic needs. New models of alternative income generation and sustainable resource use are needed to help the rural population emerge from economic depression and become less dependent on natural resources. The general public in corridor areas is largely uninformed on environmental issues and lacks incentive to participate in conservation programs.
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