Biodiversity of the Caucasus is being lost at an alarming rate. On average, nearly half of the lands in the hotspot have been transformed by human activities. The plains, foothills and subalpine belts have been the most heavily impacted. Native floodplain vegetation remains on only half of its original area in the North Caucasus and only two to three percent of original riparian forests remain in the southern Caucasus. Most natural old growth forests have been fragmented into small sections, divided by areas of commercial forests or plantations, as well as agricultural and developed lands. For the Caucasus as a whole, about a quarter of the region remains in reasonable condition, while less than 10 percent of the original vegetation, including forests, can be considered pristine.
Numbers of large herbivores have dropped dramatically in the past century. Red deer numbers have plummeted from 800 in the Lagodekhi Nature Reserve of Georgia to fewer than 100 today. In Azerbaijan, only 500 of the animals remain, while fewer than 1,500 red deer are left in Russia. Saiga antelope numbers in the North Caucasus Plain have dropped from several hundred thousand at the middle of the 20th century to fewer than 20,000 today.
Participants of the second stakeholder workshop, facilitated through CEPF investment, held in January 2003 determined proximate threats and their root causes in the Caucasus hotspot. The major threats to biodiversity in the region are: illegal logging, fuel wood harvesting and the timber trade; overgrazing; poaching and the illegal wildlife trade; overfishing; infrastructure development; and pollution of rivers and wetlands. These threats lead to habitat degradation, decline of species populations and disruption of ecological processes - all contributing to overall loss of biodiversity.
Illegal logging, fuel wood harvesting and the timber trade threaten biodiversity in the region's forests and lead to habitat degradation. While officially sanctioned logging has actually decreased in some areas in the past few years-in the North Caucasus, for example, only 30 to 50 percent of the originally planned area is being logged-illegal logging has increased. In Georgia, experts believe that illegal logging (including fuel wood harvesting) accounts for three times more than the official quotas. In Armenia, as a result of the energy crisis, 27,000 ha of forests were cut between 1992-1995, comprising eight percent of the entire forest reserves of that country. The amount of timber and fuel wood taken from forests in the Eastern Anatolian Province of Turkey is nine times higher than forest productivity. Fuel wood harvesting has increased nearly three times in some areas compared to a decade ago as a result of energy shortages and the economic crisis. Rural populations are largely dependent on fuel wood consumption for heating and cooking.
Illegal timber export is a serious problem, particularly for Georgia and Russia, but official estimates of exports are not available. Illegal logging leads to decline in species composition, forest degradation and overall habitat loss, impacting a number of plant and animal species. Fuel wood harvesting and consumption lead to forest degradation and disappearance of certain species and contribute to forest fires and global warming. The Greater Caucasus, West Lesser Caucasus, East Lesser Caucasus and Hyrcan corridors are the most impacted by illegal or unsustainable logging and fuel wood harvesting.
In order to halt illegal logging, independent assessments of the level of illegal logging and timber exports need to be made. Possible measures to combat illegal logging and trade include increasing the capacity of customs and forest inspection agencies to stop illegal trade and monitor logging in forestry enterprises. Information exchange between importing and exporting countries, as well as transboundary cooperation and NGO participation in monitoring the timber trade would help curb illegal logging. Fines for violators could be increased, while increasing the sale price of timber would mean that fewer trees would have to be cut to turn a profit. At the same time, processing wood in the region into construction materials, wood flooring, furniture and other goods would fetch a higher price on regional and international markets, eventually leading to lower levels of timber extraction from forests. Measures to reduce unsustainable fuel wood harvesting include enforcing restrictions on fuel wood harvesting near villages and reducing dependence on fuel wood by providing energy alternatives such as natural gas.
Overgrazing and uncontrolled livestock grazing threatens steppe, subalpine and alpine ecosystems. A third of pasturelands in the region are subject to erosion. Sheep grazing in winter ranges and steppes and semi-deserts of the eastern Caucasus has nearly tripled in the past decade. Intensive grazing has resulted in reduced species diversity and habitat degradation. Secondary plant communities now occupy 80 percent of grasslands in the subalpine belt. The alpine belt is slightly better preserved. Grazing of cattle in forested areas disturbs undergrowth and creates competition for wild ungulates. Overgrazing is causing environmental damage in much of the hotspot, particularly in the Kuma-Manych, Greater Caucasus, Javakheti, East Lesser Caucasus, Iori-Mingechaur and Southern Uplands corridors.
Measures to reduce the impacts of overgrazing include developing sustainable rangeland management plans, enforcing restrictions on grazing in protected areas and prohibiting grazing in damaged fields near rivers and on steep slopes. Furthermore, developing opportunities for alternative sources of income would reduce the need to keep large numbers of livestock in some rural communities.
Poaching and the illegal wildlife trade have increased significantly as a result of the economic crisis and the opening of the borders in the former Soviet countries. Overhunting of legal game species and poaching of rare species is widespread in mountain regions, in particular. Government agencies set quotas for game species without carrying out appropriate research on game numbers and population dynamics. Thus, quotas are often too high to ensure that viable populations of game animals (mostly ungulates) are maintained. Nature reserves are neither equipped nor authorized to control poaching outside of protected areas. Limitations of enforcement capabilities in Turkey and Iran also lead to uncontrolled hunting.
Leopard, brown bear, Caucasian red deer, bezoar goat and turs are heavily poached in the Caucasus. There are no more than 25 leopards left in the entire Caucasus region. Tur populations, hunted for their horns and meat, have declined in recent years and there are fewer than 200 Caucasian chamois in the Lesser Caucasus Range. Red deer numbers have fallen in the past few decades as well, particularly in the southern part of the hotspot.
Lynx, otter, wild cat, fox and jackal are killed for their fur. Rare species of falcons are captured and sold abroad. Reptiles and amphibians like common tortoise, Transcaucasian agama and Caucasian salamander have been collected for decades, both for laboratory use and the pet trade. Vipers have long been exploited for their venom. Use of animal parts, such as saiga horns for oriental medicines and leopard skins for decoration, threatens several endangered species. Poaching and unsustainable hunting are rampant in nearly all the corridors.
Measures to reduce poaching include building capacity (training, equipment, transportation) of existing ranger services, inspection agencies and NGO groups to patrol areas where poaching is prevalent. Anti-poaching units within governmental inspection agencies and civil groups could be created to monitor territories outside protected areas. Fines for poachers should be increased and prosecution of violators enforced. New opportunities for providing income to local communities through ecotourism and sustainable resource use should be developed to reduce the need for poaching. Illegal export of animal derivatives should be halted by working with customs agencies across borders and through the TRAFFIC network to reduce demand on world markets.
Overfishing, mostly driven by poverty and international demand for black-caviar, is widespread in the Caspian Sea and spawning rivers. The caviar from one beluga fetches as much as $30,000 on world markets. Illegal fishing could cause some species of sturgeon to go extinct within the next few years. It takes nearly two decades for the sturgeon to reach maturity, therefore overfishing has far-reaching impacts for populations of these fish. Overfishing is also a serious problem in the Black and Azov seas. A study in the Black Sea found that the annual catch value to the fishing industry declined by $300 million from 1980 to the mid-1990s. Poachers may exceed the legal catch quota by ten times. Fish inspection agencies are often powerless to halt overfishing - either they are corrupt and benefit from the business or they lack the capacity to fight it. Overfishing and illegal fishing also impact lakes and rivers. Fish populations have been affected in freshwater and marine habitats in the Caspian, Kuma-Manych, West Lesser Caucasus and Hyrcan corridors.
Measures to halt overfishing include enacting and enforcing bans on threatened fish species and decreasing demand for threatened species on international markets through public awareness campaigns. Fines for illegal fishing should be increased and violators prosecuted to the full extent of the law. Capacity (training, equipment, transportation) of marine and freshwater inspection agencies should be strengthened. Fishing quotas should be established based on independent scientific studies of reproductive capacity of fish populations. Alternative sources of income should be provided for fishermen.
Infrastructure development, including roads, dams, channels and pipelines, fragments natural habitats and contributes to habitat loss. Draining wetlands and digging channels for agriculture and irrigation alters riparian ecosystems irreversibly and leads to habitat loss. Oil extraction in Baku Bay in the Caspian Corridor causes pollution and habitat degradation. Plans for construction of the Baku-Ceyhan pipeline will have negative impacts for biodiversity. Certain provinces in Turkey have experienced population booms in the past ten years, leading to a growth in construction of residential housing, industrial complexes and infrastructure. A highway along the Black Sea Coast has damaged marine ecosystems irreversibly and expansion of urban areas destroys forest cover. Plans to build a dam on the Chorokh River for irrigation or electricity will result in enormous damage to riparian ecosystems of one of the most important rivers in the Turkish Caucasus. Infrastructure development threatens natural habitats in the Caspian, West Lesser Caucasus, Iori-Mingechaur and Arasbaran corridors.
Measures to mitigate impacts of infrastructure development include carrying out independent environmental impact assessments and monitoring, bringing public attention to the environmental consequences of development projects and encouraging development companies to provide funds for protected areas and other conservation measures in areas that will be disturbed by infrastructure projects.
Pollution of rivers and wetlands is generally a result of run off from human settlements, factories, farmlands and pastures. While the use of pesticides and fertilizers in commercial agriculture has declined significantly in the former Soviet countries since 1990, use of chemicals on private plots is growing. Manure from livestock is often dumped directly into rivers, altering nutrient balances and causing eutrophication of lakes. Waste materials from timber production are also thrown into rivers at logging and processing sites. Erosion from farmlands, pastures and logged forests causes increased turbidity in many rivers.
Large-scale industrial production has decreased dramatically in the last decade as a result of the economic crisis, leading to lower levels of pollution. However, smaller factories generally do not have the means to install effective waste management mechanisms and equipment and runoff waters are highly polluted. Pollution of wetlands and rivers impacts breeding birds and fish populations. Pesticides and fertilizers kill large numbers of invertebrates and make their way up the food chain to birds and even humans. Pollution has impacted freshwater systems in the Kuma-Manych, Arasbaran and Iori-Mingechaur corridors. Pollution from oil extraction, run off and other sources has compromised the integrity of marine ecosystems in the Caspian, Azov and Black seas. Ineffective water management is a serious problem for water conservation in the East Lesser Caucasus and Javakheti corridors.
Measures to reduce pollution of rivers and wetlands include increasing fines for dumping polluted wastewater into rivers and prosecuting violators. Civil society should be involved in monitoring pollution levels in rivers and lakes to determine sources. Dumping of manure and other waste into rivers should be prohibited. Use of pesticides and other chemicals near waterways should be closely monitored by independent groups. Conversion of lands adjacent to rivers and lakes for agriculture should be prohibited.
A number of root causes are behind the proximate threats to biodiversity (Figure 5). Root causes can be broadly grouped into three categories: socioeconomic, political and institutional. Poverty is perhaps the most significant of the socioeconomic root causes, leading to poaching, fuel wood consumption, illegal logging, overgrazing and other threats. Poverty forces people to be dependent on natural resources and use resources unsustainably to meet their basic needs. The lack of public awareness and public involvement in nature conservation is another reason people are more likely to participate in poaching, overfishing and other violations. Economically, the public has little incentive to conserve firewood, water, or other resources. Poor land use planning results in overgrazing, pollution of waterways and inefficient infrastructure development.
Political root causes of biodiversity degradation stem from gaps and contradictions in legislation and the lack of a clear delineation of jurisdiction for enforcement agencies. Political and civil conflicts hinder cooperation on nature conservation and military conflicts often result in increased forest fires, logging, poaching and pollution. The lack of transboundary cooperation between countries hinders control of overfishing, illegal trade of timber and wildlife and pollution of waterways.
Institutional root causes include ineffective administrative institutions and enforcement of legislation. Limited coordination among institutions and lack of communication results in duplication of efforts and misunderstandings. Insufficient knowledge of conservation issues among key stakeholders hinders environmental protection efforts. Gaps in protected areas networks and poor protected areas management leads to poaching, illegal logging, overgrazing and other threats. Insufficient research and monitoring means that the extent of illegal logging, overfishing and poaching is unknown and long-term impacts on biodiversity are poorly understood.
Assessment of proximate threats and root causes helps to determine the thematic focus of the CEPF niche. Strategies should aim to address the root causes in order to mitigate threats in the corridors. Targeted programs that empower civil society to improve management of protected areas and capabilities of state conservation agencies and increase transboundary coordination will be important strategic directions for CEPF investment. Programs to create alternative incomes for local communities will be important to reduce the public's dependence on natural resource consumption. Strategies to increase awareness among decisionmakers and the public will promote involvement in and support of conservation activities. Training and support of NGOs and key stakeholders will help them carry out important conservation projects more efficiently and in coordination with existing government efforts, thereby maximizing the effectiveness of all efforts. Tightly defined monitoring and research activities will help us gain a better understanding of the extent of threats to biodiversity and what measures are needed to halt biodiversity loss.
Previous: Socioeconomic Features / Next: Synopsis of Current Investments